anxiolytic is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Updated 2025-10-09. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Tuftsin, the parent structure, is a naturally occurring immunomodulatory tetrapeptide released from the Fc region of immunoglobulin G by spleen enzymes. Selank extends this four-residue sequence with three additional amino acids. The stated rationale is that the added tail slows enzymatic breakdown and may influence receptor interactions. How the full heptapeptide behaves at the molecular level is not firmly established, and proposed mechanisms often involve indirect modulation of neurotransmitter or immune signaling rather than a single defined target.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in Russia. Its sequence is Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, a seven-residue chain built around the natural tetrapeptide tuftsin. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences first described the compound in the mid-1990s. The design combined the tuftsin core with an added Pro-Gly-Pro tail, a modification intended to extend the molecule's stability in biological fluids. Published work on the peptide has appeared mainly in Russian-language journals.
Proposed mechanisms centre on modulation of the GABAergic system, with reports of altered expression of genes related to GABA-A receptor subunits and changed monoamine turnover. Some studies describe inhibition of enkephalinase, the enzyme that degrades endogenous enkephalins, which may prolong opioid peptide signalling. Effects on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and on cytokine expression have also been reported. These findings come largely from animal models and small human studies, and the precise primary target remains unresolved.
Published clinical evidence is limited. Most controlled trials were conducted in Russia, enrolled modest numbers of participants, and appeared in Russian-language journals, which restricts independent verification. Reported outcomes include lower anxiety scores, improved attention and memory measures, and changes in fatigue ratings. Reviews written in English note methodological limitations such as small samples and inconsistent endpoints. Whether the compound produces clinically meaningful benefit relative to established anxiolytics is therefore an open question rather than an established finding.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was designed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences as a structural analogue of tuftsin, a naturally occurring tetrapeptide fragment of the immunoglobulin heavy chain. The added Pro-Gly-Pro tail was intended to slow enzymatic degradation and extend biological activity. In Russia it is registered as an anxiolytic nasal preparation, while regulators elsewhere have not approved it for clinical use.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide | Modeled on tuftsin |
| Amino acid sequence | Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro | Seven residues |
| Approximate molecular mass | Around 750 Da | Depends on counter-ion and hydration |
| Common forms | Lyophilized powder | Also described as aqueous solution |
| Primary origin of research | Russian laboratories | Mid-1990s onward |
Proposed mechanisms centre on the GABAergic system. Animal and tissue studies report changes in GABA-A receptor expression and reduced activity of GABA transaminase, the enzyme that degrades GABA. Effects on monoamine turnover, including serotonin and dopamine pathways, are also described, and a separate line of work links the peptide to increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in hippocampal tissue. Most of these findings come from rodent models and cell preparations. How the individual observations combine into a single coherent mode of action is not settled.
Pharmacokinetic data are sparse and largely derived from animal work. After intranasal administration the peptide appears in plasma within minutes, and reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes to tens of minutes. Degradation proceeds through ordinary proteolytic cleavage into constituent amino acids and smaller fragments. Direct evidence that intact Selank reaches brain tissue in meaningful amounts is limited, and the extent of blood-brain barrier penetration is debated. Some authors argue that fragments, not the parent peptide, carry much of the observed activity.
The primary structure of Selank is Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, corresponding to the molecular formula C33H57N11O9 and a monoisotopic mass of roughly 751.9 daltons. The N-terminal threonine and the arginine residue in the fourth position are shared with tuftsin, which carries the sequence Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg. The three additional residues at the C-terminus, Pro-Gly-Pro, extend the chain and are associated with greater resistance to enzymatic degradation. This extension also separates Selank from the shorter parent peptide.
Naming conventions place Selank in the same research family as Semax, another Russian-developed peptide investigated for cognitive effects. The two compounds share a lineage but differ in sequence and in the biological systems proposed as their targets. Semax descends from ACTH fragments, whereas Selank descends from tuftsin. Publications sometimes identify Selank by its full peptide sequence or by laboratory codes rather than one uniform trade name. Because replication outside Russia is limited, reports on its properties are best read alongside the study design and the purity of the material tested.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in Russia during the 1990s. Researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences designed it as a stabilized analog of tuftsin, a naturally occurring immunomodulatory tetrapeptide. The compound has been studied primarily for its reported anxiolytic and nootropic effects. It remains largely unknown in Western pharmacology and is not approved as a medicine by major regulators such as the FDA or the EMA.
Measuring peptide exposure inside the brain is technically difficult. Selank is degraded rapidly in plasma, and assays must separate intact peptide from fragments, which favors targeted mass spectrometry over immunoassays alone. Reported half-lives are short, on the order of minutes, so effects observed hours later are attributed to downstream signaling rather than to the parent compound. Blood-brain barrier permeability is debated and rarely quantified directly. Gaps include absent dose-response characterization, inconsistent reporting of purity, and almost no pharmacokinetic data from human participants.
Selank is studied chiefly as an animal-model anxiolytic with proposed secondary effects on memory and immune signaling. Reported mechanisms include modulation of the GABA-A receptor complex, inhibition of enkephalin-degrading enzymes, and shifts in monoamine turnover within limbic structures. Some experiments describe increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the hippocampus after repeated dosing. No single molecular target has been confirmed, and the peptide does not bind any receptor with the selectivity typical of a conventional small-molecule drug. Mechanism therefore remains a set of hypotheses rather than an established pathway.
Laboratory work relies on standard behavioral paradigms. Rodents are tested in the elevated plus maze, open field, and passive avoidance tasks, with outcomes compared against diazepam or vehicle controls. Intranasal dosing is used most often because it bypasses first-pass metabolism, though intraperitoneal and intravenous routes also appear in published protocols. Biochemical endpoints include tissue BDNF concentrations, cytokine levels, and monoamine metabolites. Human data are limited to small Russian trials reporting reduced anxiety scores; most were not prospectively registered, and few employed independent outcome assessment.
In 2019, the European Medicines Agency's Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee (PRAC) recommended that product labels for all SSRIs and SNRIs, including sertraline, be updated to state that sexual dysfunction may be long-lasting even after treatment is stopped. Health Canada followed with similar label updates in 2021. In 2024, Australia's Therapeutic Goods Administration aligned all SSRI and SNRI product information to reflect this risk, noting that sertraline already carried a warning about persistent sexual dysfunction.
During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (Bruno Barreto, 1997) and Central do Brasil (Walter Salles, 1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes, being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival. The film I'm Still Here, directed by Walter Salles, was nominated for Best Actress (Torres) and Best Picture at the 97th Academy Awards, and won Best International Feature Film, becoming the first-ever Brazilian produced film to win an Academy Award. The film The Secret Agent had its world premiere at the main competition of the 2025 Cannes Film Festival on 18 May 2025, where it won the Best Actor prize for Wagner Moura, the Best Director prize for Mendonça and the FIPRESCI Prize. It received further widespread critical acclaim.
==== Andrea Cozzolino ==== Andrea Cozzolino's legal immunity was also removed by the European Parliament on 2 February 2023, when Andrea Cozzolino was in Italy. Cozzolino was arrested on 10 February 2023, after leaving a hospital in Naples where he was being treated for heart problems; he was taken to Poggioreale prison, but later allowed to go home under house-arrest. Cozzolino's lawyer Dimitri De Béco issued a statement that Cozzolino opposed being extradited to Belgium, because of the Belgian justice "way of proceeding". Cozzolino has repeatedly denied any wrong-doing. On 14 February, a Naples court granted a request from Cozzolino's lawyers to postpone the extradition hearing to 28 February so that the court could check the prison in Belgium that Cozzolino would be put in if extradited. In June he flew to Brussels and was placed by a Judge on parole, with conditions attached.
== Anatomy == One carotid sheath is situated on each side of the neck, extending between the base of the skull superiorly and the thorax inferiorly. Superiorly, the carotid sheath encircles the margins of the carotid canal and jugular foramen. Inferiorly, it terminates at the arch of the aorta; it is continuous inferiorly with the axillary sheath at the venous angle. Its inferior end occurs at the level of the first rib and sternum inferiorly (varying between the levels of C7 and T4).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
A glucogenic amino acid (or glucoplastic amino acid) is an amino acid that can be converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis. This is in contrast to the ketogenic amino acids, which are converted into ketone bodies. The production of glucose from glucogenic amino acids involves these amino acids being converted to alpha keto acids and then to glucose, with both processes occurring in the liver. This mechanism predominates during catabolysis, rising as fasting and starvation increase in severity. As an example, consider alanine. Alanine is a glucogenic amino acid that the liver's gluconeogenesis process can use to produce glucose. Muscle cells break down their protein when their blood glucose levels fall, which happens during fasting or periods of intense exercise. The breakdown process releases alanine, which is then transferred to the liver. Through a transamination process, alanine is changed into pyruvate in the liver. Following this, pyruvate is transformed into oxaloacetate, a crucial step in the gluconeogenesis process. It is possible to synthesize glucose from oxaloacetate, ensuring that the blood glucose levels required for the body to produce energy are maintained. In humans, the glucogenic amino acids are:
In early July 1990, Iraq complained about Kuwait's behavior, such as not respecting their quota, and openly threatened to take military action. On the 23rd, the CIA reported that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq–Kuwait border, and the US naval fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. Saddam believed an anti-Iraq conspiracy was developing – Kuwait had begun talks with Iran, and Iraq's rival Syria had arranged a visit to Egypt. On 15 July 1990, Saddam's government laid out its combined objections to the Arab League, including that policy moves were costing Iraq $1 billion a year, that Kuwait was still using the Rumaila oil field, and that loans made by the UAE and Kuwait could not be considered debts to its "Arab brothers". He threatened force against Kuwait and the UAE, saying: "The policies of some Arab rulers are American ... They are inspired by America to undermine Arab interests and security." The US sent aerial refuelling planes and combat ships to the Persian Gulf in response to these threats. Discussions in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, mediated on the Arab League's behalf by Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak, were held on 31 July and led Mubarak to believe that a peaceful course could be established.
=== Applications === The enhanced sensitivity of eSimoa is crucial for early and accurate biomarker detection in clinical diagnostics, facilitating better disease monitoring and management. In drug discovery, the ability to track subtle changes in enzymatic activity aids in the development of more effective pharmaceuticals by providing detailed insights into enzyme inhibition mechanisms.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Hemoglobin, erythrocruorin, and chlorocruorin are all globins, iron-heme proteins with a common core. Their color comes from the absorption spectra of heme with Fe2+. Erythrocruorin and chlorocruorin are closely related giant globins found used by some invertebrates. Chlorocruorin has a special heme group, giving it different colors. Any of various coloured conjugated proteins, such as hemoglobin, occur in living organisms and function in oxygen transfer in cellular respiration.
However, the increase in those without coeliac disease eating gluten-free may lead to decreased vigilance of food manufacturers and misunderstandings around the importance of avoiding cross-contamination. Many gluten-free substitutions are lower in nutritional quality and may lack vitamins and nutrients that their gluten-containing counterparts have. Ingredients commonly used in gluten-free substitutes, such as rice, potato, corn, and tapioca starches, have lower levels of fibre, carbohydrates, and vitamins but are higher in sugars and fats than gluten-containing diets. Currently, there are no federal regulations for gluten in non-food products such as medications, cosmetics, and hygiene products. Although the amount of gluten in non-food products is usually minimal, mislabelling of gluten products can confuse people and potentially adversely impact health.
The word yeast comes from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root *yes-, meaning "boil", "foam", or "bubble". Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms. Archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and breweries. Vessels studied from several archaeological sites in Israel (dating to around 5,000, 3,000 and 2,500 years ago), which were believed to have contained alcoholic beverages (beer and mead), were found to contain yeast colonies that had survived over the millennia, providing the first direct biological evidence of yeast use in early cultures. In 1680, Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms, but rather globular structures as researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were algae or fungi. Theodor Schwann recognized them as fungi in 1837.
Alpha-thalassemia (α-thalassemia, α-thalassaemia) is an inherited blood disorder and a form of thalassemia. Thalassemias are a group of inherited blood conditions which result in the impaired production of hemoglobin, the molecule that carries oxygen in the blood. Symptoms depend on the extent to which hemoglobin is deficient, and include anemia, pallor, tiredness, enlargement of the spleen, iron overload, abnormal bone structure, jaundice, and gallstones. In severe cases death ensues, often in infancy, or death of the unborn fetus. The disease is characterised by reduced production of the alpha-globin component of hemoglobin, caused by inherited mutations affecting the genes HBA1 and HBA2. This causes reduced levels of hemoglobin leading to anemia, while the accumulation of surplus beta-globin, the other structural component of hemoglobin, damages red blood cells and shortens their life. Diagnosis is by checking the medical history of near relatives, microscopic examination of blood smear, ferritin test, hemoglobin electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing. As an inherited condition, alpha thalassemia cannot be prevented although genetic counselling of parents prior to conception can propose the use of donor sperm or eggs. The principle form of management is blood transfusion every 3 to 4 weeks, which relieves the anemia but leads to iron overload and possible immune reaction. Medication includes folate supplementation, iron chelation, bisphosphonates, and removal of the spleen. Alpha thalassemia can also be treated by bone marrow transplant from a well matched donor.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Selank is a synthetic peptide made of seven amino acids. It is modeled on tuftsin, a natural tetrapeptide, with an added three-residue tail. It is not a small-molecule drug.
It originates from research in Russia, associated with the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The first descriptions date to the mid-1990s. Most published studies come from Russian laboratories.
No, Selank itself does not occur naturally. Its backbone is based on tuftsin, which is produced in the body, but the seven-residue version is a synthetic construct. It is supplied as a manufactured peptide.
It is a seven-amino-acid peptide, Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro, produced by chemical synthesis rather than extracted from biological tissue. Its design is based on tuftsin, a natural immunomodulatory tetrapeptide. The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro segment is a common stabilising motif in short regulatory peptides.